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  Background: Despite the effective pre- and post-exposure treatments, at least 60,000 deaths from rabies occur worldwide every year. Post-exposure treatment is considered as one of the most significant measures for preventing human deaths in exposed individuals. The 2-1-1 rabies post-exposure treatment schedule known as Zagreb regimen is an abbreviated immunization plan in which a tissue culture rabies vaccine is administered intramuscularly at two sites on day 0 and at one site on days 7 and 21. Objectives: In this study the efficacy of rabies vaccine administration under Zagreb regimen in an Iranian group of patients attending Pasteur Institute of Iran was evaluated. Methods: Rabies neutralizing antibody titer was measured in 75 serum samples collected from 25 volunteers receiving post exposure treatment by rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT), and ELISA. Results: All patients were negative for rabies antibody in both ELISA and FRRIT tests on day 0 . A satisfactory rabies virus antibody response with the titer of ≥0.5 IU/ml was detected in all patients on day 21 and two weeks after the completion of vaccination (day 35). Conclusions: Rabies immunization with rabies Vero-cell vaccine (PVRV) under the 2-1-1 schedule (Zagreb regimen) could result in an adequate immune response without any adverse effect. However a more comprehensive comparative study is underway to confirm these findings . Vac Res , 2014, 1 (1): 26-28

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Mucosal surfaces of the body provide a universal entry portal for all known and emerging infectious pathogenic microbes. Therefore, it seems that special vaccination strategies are needed for vaccines that can hinder the entry capability of pathogenic microbes through the mucosal surfaces. Lactic acid bacteria are widely used in the food industry and are presently applied as delivery vehicles in many biological investigations. Among these bacteria, Lactococcus lactis is considered as a promising candidate for mucosal live vaccines to be used as an antigen delivery vector. This is an attractive alternative and a safer vaccination strategy against the pathogens, compared to other conventional methods. In this review, we summarized the applications of L. lactis as a mucosal vector of vaccine delivery for heterologous expression of proteins and its applications in biotechnology. 

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Since the reemergence of a severe acute respiratory syndrome caused by a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), the disease caused by this virus, known as COVID-19, has been spreading rapidly all around the world. As of early June 2020, COVID-19 has infected more that 6.6 million people, and has caused more than 390,000 deaths, globally. Similar to its pioneers, namely SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, there is currently no vaccine or specific antiviral treatment against this virus. This review provides a timely overview on efforts as well as different platforms used for developing an effective vaccine against COVID-19.

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In addition to conventional vaccine development for infectious diseases, nucleic acid-based vaccine approaches have recently been presented as serious alternatives to previously used strategies based on live attenuated virus particles and subunit vaccines. Particularly, RNA-based vaccines have proven attractive. In this context, immunization with messenger RNA (mRNA) has provided strong immune responses and protection against challenges with lethal doses of pathogenic viruses in vaccinated animals. Alternatively, the efficient RNA replication mechanism provided by self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) viruses has been utilized. Enhanced immune responses with reduced doses required for immunization has been obtained in comparison to conventional mRNA administration. The rapid spread and destruction caused by the COVID-19 pandemic has substantially accelerated the demand for the development of robust and efficient vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. Both mRNA- and saRNA-based COVID-19 vaccine candidates are currently in human clinical trials.

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The skin is considered as the largest organ in the body, functioning as a barrier providing protection from the outside environment, but also performing essential immune functions through a complex network of epidermal and dermal cells that interact with each other. The basic principle of the vaccines is to induce protection against pathogens by simulating its interaction with the immune system, allowing to generate a memory immune response. To achieve this protection, the interaction and binding of both innate and adaptive immune responses is required. Intradermal (ID) delivery of vaccines achieves direct injection of the antigen into the dermis, where the largest numbers of immune cells are found (macrophages, dendritic cells, Langerhans cells, B and T lymphocytes, and mast cells, among others). It is a novel route that elicits antibody responses equivalent to other routes of administration but at lower doses, a phenomenon known as "dose saving". This route also allows for better thermo-stability of the antigen, fewer booster immunizations and, as a consequence, increased adherence to the vaccination regimens with less burden on the medical personnel. There are currently several vaccines for the ID administration on the market, and several more under development; with good safety profiles and efficacy rates. In this article, we review the most important aspects of the immune system within the skin, the pathways by which vaccines are applied to the skin intradermally to produce an adequate immune response, and also their advantages and disadvantages.
The skin has important immune machinery, thanks to which both innate and adaptive immune responses merge. This interaction allows for the basis of vaccination: development of memory responses to various antigens, providing protection for the future re-exposures.

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Introduction: Despite conization, high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion can recur. Persistent human papilloma virus infection is an important factor of recurrence. We analyse different situations that could favor the persistence of this infection. Methods: A retrospective case-control study of 256 patients who underwent conization between 2015 and 2020 was conducted. Depending on positive or negative result of HPV test after the first 6 months post conization, two groups were defined and compared: 1) control group HPV-negative patients, 2) case group HPV-positive patients. Age, parity, smoking habit, menopause, body mass index (BMI), vaccination, HPV genotypes and exo and endocervical margin status were analysed. Results: 63 of the 256 patients studied, (24.6%) persisted positive for HPV after conization, while 193 (75.4%) became negative for HPV. Patients over 35 years old had a significantly higher risk of persistence of HPV after conization (OR 1.9). Being menopausal was also significantly associated with the persistence of HPV (OR 2.5). The presence of affected resection margins in cone specimen proved to be a risk factor for the persistence of HPV (OR 2.3). The coexistence of multiple HPV genotypes before conization seemed to be a protective factor for HPV persistence (OR 0.3). The rest of clinical characteristics studied failed to demonstrate statistical significance; therefore, it was not possible to classify them as risk and/or protective factors. Conclusions: Age over 35, menopause and affected resection margins of conization were significantly associated (p< 0.05) with the persistence of HPV infection; however, HPV vaccination was not among the risk factors.

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Cutaneous reactions reported post COVID-19 trials range from acute and immediate to delayed reactions. The suspected trigger for hypersensitivity reactions is the inactive ingredients, such as polyethylene glycol in mRNA vaccines and polysorbate 80 in AstraZeneca. Localised or injection- site reactions are generally self-limiting and occur within seven days. Younger and female patients were more likely to report injection-site reactions, and most cutaneous reactions after the second dose occurred sooner than after the first dose. Delayed large local reactions or ‘COVID arm’ have been reported after seven days post vaccination and generally resolve within two weeks. However, there were cases reported four days post-AstraZeneca vaccination. Other dermatological reactions, such as pityriasis rosea- like eruptions and flares of existing cutaneous conditions were seen in mRNA and AstraZeneca recipients but not in Sinopharm. Risk stratifying vaccine recipients into low, medium or high risk of developing severe allergic reactions may be done using screening questions. Skin testing may be considered for the high risk category but negative skin testing does not rule out a subsequent allergic response. Delayed cutaneous reactions may be misdiagnosed as cellulitis and administered unnecessary antibiotics.

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Introduction: Several types of COVID-19 vaccines have been developed so far for the public use. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of different types of COVID-19 vaccines (i.e., viral vector, conjugated and inactivated virus) and the effects of the number of injected doses on the associated risks. Methods: Patients with positive PCR test results for COVID-19 who had been admitted to the Infectious Disease Screening Center (IDSC) of Jiroft in Iran were included in this study. Information from the patients' medical records from February 2022 to June 2022 was collected, retrospectively. Result: In total, 309 COVID-19 patients (48.5% male and 51.5% female) with a mean age of 39.9±16.7 were included in this study. Our result showed that the viral vector vaccines reduced the chance of hospitalization by 67 % (14.3% in vaccinated patients vs. 73.3% in the unvaccinated group). Moreover, the odds of hospitalization in patients who had received the same type of vaccines as their first dose and their boosters were four times higher than the other patients (17.4% vs. 5.6%) (P=0.02). Also, the analysis of our data illustrated that as the number of the vaccines and the boosters increased, the chance of getting severe COVID-19 decreased (P<0.001), and none of the patients who had received 3 doses of the boosters were hospitalized due to COVID-19. However, There was no significant relationship between the status of the patients (inpatient or outpatient) and the time interval between COVID-19 vaccines and their boosters (P>0.05). Conclusion: Overall, the viral vector vaccines such as AstraZeneca and Sputnik-V were most successful in reducing the hospitalization rate of COVID-19 patients

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Rabies is a zoonotic disease, endemic mostly in Asia and Africa. Rabies virus belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae, genus Lyssavirus. Because infection with rabies virus has no cure and is life-threatening, vaccination is an important preventive measure to combat this disease in humans and animals. On the other hand, considering the limited availability of rabies vaccines in some of less developed countries with a higher rate of human rabies death each year, the need for an alternative strategy to produce a cost-effective and immunogenic vaccine against this disease is essential. In this review, we provide a brief overview of rabies vaccine development and its recent basic research. We also describe how viral vectors such as poxvirus vector, adenovirus replicons, and reverse genetics are manipulated for efficient novel formulated vaccines against this infection and we highlight possible future developments